​For Yakima county located in central Washington, the effects of climate change include both higher temperatures and an increased risk of drought. Yakima is in a Mediterranean climate similar to the climate of Greece and California. This climate is characterized by mild winters and hot summers; most precipitation – an average of 8.3 inches in Yakima – falls in the winter instead of the summer. Already hot, Yakima is expected to get hotter. Analysis by NOAA suggests that even in a “low emission” scenario, the weighted-average daily maximum temperature will be 61.4 degrees Fahrenheit in 2080. With “high emissions,” this temperature will increase to 64.5 degrees Fahrenheit. There is a large difference between these temperatures and the 2000’s maximum daily temperature of 55.3 degrees Fahrenheit.
 
Drought is more likely to occur because of climate change. A tributary of the Columbia River, the Yakima river starts in the Cascade mountains. Water from the Yakima river comes from five reservoirs run by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation: Lake Keechelus, Lake Kachess, Lake Cle Elum, Rimrock Lake, and Bumping Lake. The total volume of these reservoirs is around one million acre-feet of water. Because of winter snowpack, these reservoirs can easily fill-up in the spring. Snowpack is essential for these reservoirs to remain full. Less snowpack, however, would result in lower water levels in the reservoirs which are more likely to remain empty as the dry summer months continue each year.

​Data for rainfall was projected using a “variable infiltration capacity macroscale hydrology” model. One of the advantages of this simulation type is that scientists can use it to predict changes based not only on watersheds in Washington but based on other watersheds, that are out of the state, that could impact Washington’s water. This data was generated between 1916 and 2006, however it has been modified on each month to better reflect the changing climate that will occur 2020s, 2040s, 2080s via the delta method. Using the data from these simulations, scientists can evaluate both snowpack and streamflow. The “Snow Water Equivalent” graph below compares the predicted amount of water in a snowpack on April first in comparison to historical data.
 
Additionally, projected and historical temperature data is supplemented from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) climate explorer tool (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 2020). This free, reliable, online tool gathers precipitation from on the ground metrological stations located both around the country and around the state. This tool predicts both scenarios with high greenhouse emissions, and low greenhouse emissions.

​Because Yakima gets so much sun, it is a center for agriculture with the highest market value from farming in the state. In addition to growing the most squash in the state, the county grows the most apples, cherries and pears. Furthermore, Yakima county produces more hops than any where else in the United States. In 2017, there were 2,952 farms in Yakima, with a combined total area of 1,781,463 acres. Ninety-six percent of these farms are family owned.
 
The Yakima river basin is one of the most irrigated areas in the United States. Fifteen percent of farm area, or 260,023 acres, are irrigated through canals, many of which were built in the late nineteenth century. Yet, since 1977, the Yakima basin has experienced seven droughts, and numerous low water years. Climate change will only exacerbate these issues, droughts will become more frequent and more severe. As most of the precipitation shifts from snowpack to rain, there will be less water stored in reservoirs. Therefore, the Yakima river will have less streamflow. For farmers who get their water from the Yakima river, a drastically reduced flow will hamper growing efforts.
 
In addition, the Yakima river provides crucial spawning and rearing habitat for several salmon species. Fish, of course, need water to survive. One study found that the spawning ground for Coho Salmon and Fall Chinook will decrease because of climate change. The Yakima Tribe of Indians has tribal water rights to protect fish in the Yakima river under an 1855 treaty, however these rights were vague. The famous Ecology v Acquavella et. al. case settled in 2019 established primary water rights for the Yakima nation and addressed instream flows necessary to maintain fish and other aquatic life.

Ecology v Acquavella - Washington State Department of Ecology.

Yakima River Basin. USGS. 

Identifying Stakeholder-Relevant Climate Change Impacts: A Case Study in the Yakima River Basin. Climatic Change. 

Climate change impacts on water management and irrigated agriculture in the Yakima River Basin, Washington, USA. Climatic Change. 

​Ever since the early 2000s, Chelan County in Washington has experienced an increase in average maximum temperature. This trend in increased heat is predicted to reach well into the future. At the same time, the average precipitation shows signs of decreasing, with the average precipitation from 2000-2020 being .26” less than in the twenty years previous. In addition, snow cover over the last five decades, been disappearing earlier and earlier in the year across areas of Russia, Alaska, Canada, and in parts of the northwestern United States.
 
These factors have all contributed to an increase in wildfires across Washington, with a significant increase in large wildfires in the state starting in 2012. In 2012 alone, there were 12 large wildfires in Washington, four of them affecting Chelan County. At that point in time, Chelan county boasted the eighth highest occurrences of wildfires based on data spanning from 2003 to 2012. Then, in 2015, the fires grew to such a size that Washington state had to declare a state of emergency. That year, Chelan county was rocked by fire that burned 88,985 acres surrounding the city of Chelan. This fire was attributed to drought conditions cause by minimal snowpack and unusually high temperatures.
 
Increased temperatures, decreased precipitation, and shorter snow cover seasons are elements of climate change that have huge negative impacts on the health of forests, leading to larger and more devastating wildfires. Though wildfires are a natural element of new growth in forested areas, the increase in devastation and frequency of large-scale fires is a danger to both humans and the natural environment. The ecosystem of Washington state forests could be severely impacted by the increase in large-scale wildfires.

​Much of the data used in this project comes from the following interactive tools: The Climate Explorer, the Global Climate Dashboard, and Climate at a Glance. Graphs from the Climate Explorer that show the increase in Chelan County’s average maximum temperature were created by combining observed historical data and current measurements to predict and model possible future trends in temperature. Climate at a Glance and The Climate Explorer are both run by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. County specific data is collected from NOAA’s US Climate Divisional Database, which contains climate data spanning from 1895 to 2020.
 
Snow cover data has been collected from satellite images that have been mapping the snow extent of the Northern Hemisphere since the 1960s. This data, now collected daily as opposed to weekly as was the case in the sixties, is corroborated by various other measuring tools including observations, precipitation gauges, and weather stations with pressure-sensitive measuring tools.
 
The fire data used in this report has been compiled from various sources including a Washington State Wildland Fire Profile from 2013, a report on the Chelan Complex fire of 2015, and various articles.

​The increase in wildfires in Chelan county poses a threat for residents and their surroundings. The Chelan Complex fire alone destroyed 58 buildings, causing $23,513,366.00 worth of damage. Economically, dealing with fires is very expensive. Between 2010 and 2016, Washington spent nearly a half a billion dollars fighting fires and maintaining fire departments. This imposes significant economic strain on all residents of Washington.
 
Not only can people be affected by the economic repercussions of increasing wildfires, the rising threat means increased health risks as well. Though only a few wildfire deaths have been recorded in Chelan county, wildfire smoke increases the risk of respiratory and cardiovascular health issues. Smoke inhalation can also aggravate preexisting health conditions such as asthma and angina. People over the age of 65, children and infants, pregnant mothers, and people with lung, respiratory, and heart problems are all particularly susceptible to adverse effects.      
 
Though steps such as burn bans are being implemented in attempts to decrease the rate of wildfires in Chelan county, the decreasing precipitation and snow cover combined with the increasing heat means that forests are more at risk than ever, and forests at risk means that people are at risk.

​A 2016 Climate Central study revealed that human actions are resulting in rising global sea levels. As a result, some primary concerns are how populations, buildings, infrastructure, land and contamination risks will be affected by these rising sea levels. For Thurston County, there is an increased risk of flooding, especially in the most vulnerable areas that closely line large bodies of water.
 
Thurston County, home to the city of Olympia, rests on the bank of the Puget Sound inlet. A U.S. National Research Council report projected a 9% risk of at least one flood over 4ft occurring sometime between today and 2050 in the Olympia area. By the year 2060, this percentage is projected to rise to 24% before drastically increasing to 62% by the year 2070 with flood levels expected to rise well above 4ft.
 
The frequency and intensity of heavy rain events is also projected to increase according to a 2015 study conducted as part of the Climate Impacts Group’s “State of Knowledge” series that focused on the Puget Sound area. Increased precipitation is directly linked to increasing global air temperatures that will lead to more freshwater inflows into the Puget Sound, particularly during winter months. Additionally, rising air temperatures would increase the likelihood of harmful algal blooms in the ecosystem.
 
While Washington state as a whole is at risk to the effects of climate change, areas such as Thurston county that are near central bodies of water are particularly vulnerable. Rising temperatures and sea levels will directly impact the Puget Sound and its surrounding areas. The effects of climate change will surely have a range of sociological, ecological and economic impacts on Thurston county.

​These projections rely primarily on two tools that are freely accessible online: the “State of Knowledge Report - Climate Change in Puget Sound” and the Surging Seas, Risk Finder Website.
 
The “State of Knowledge” series summarizes research on the probable effects of climate change on the water, lands and people of the Puget Sound. The synthesized work was created by the Climate Impacts Group, which aims to increase understanding and awareness of climate change through sharing information and conducting scientific studies. Data, projections and relevant research were all used to compile this report.
 
The Surging Seas tool aims to provide accessible, science-based, localized information to help people better understand and respond to the climate crisis as it specifically relates to rising sea levels. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association (NOAA) provides Surging Seas with accurate coastal elevation and tide station data. More scientific data was pulled from 2012 U.S. National Research Council records while population-specific data was obtained through the 2010 U.S. Census.

​Flooding and rising sea levels disproportionately harm vulnerable populations like the elderly, children, and people experiencing homelessness. The Thurston county homeless census found that 800 individuals were homeless or lived in emergency or transitional housing in 2019. While this is a slight decrease since the year prior, it is still a significantly large number. Many of these homeless individuals are unsheltered and positioned to be hit the hardest in the case of flooding or any other major climate events.
 
In addition to vulnerable communities being at risk from elevating sea levels, the effects of climate change will impact other areas as well. Agriculture lies along many rivers, infrastructure is vulnerable, homeowners and their property are at risk, and clean water sources may be contaminated. Climate change has the capacity to influence change in many areas and, eventually, everyone will be considered vulnerable regardless of their socioeconomic status.
 
When surveyed in 2016, residents of Thurston county had a higher than average awareness of climate issues, yet a lower than average concern for the personal toll that global warming will have on them.

Article author: Kiersten Kimminau, William O. Douglas Honors College, Central Washington University
Article editor: Dr. Tamara Caulkins, William O. Douglas Honors College, Central Washington University
​

​Shasta County in northern California is one of multiple areas in the state that has experienced the drastic social and physical effects of wildfires. In 2018 alone, there were millions of acres nationwide burned by wildfires and over 1 million of those acres were in California alone. Over 38,000 people were evacuated from the city of Redding, the Shasta county seat. Also in 2018, the town of Paradise just south of Shasta county in Butte county was almost completely destroyed.
 
Climate change is a major factor in the prevalence of wildfires. Concurrent with the rise in average temperatures since the year 2000, eight out of the 10 biggest fires on record in California, have occurred. The state’s fire season is also longer, increasing from 65 days a year in the 1970s to 140 days in the 2000s.
 
Some people may confuse wildfires with controlled fires that occur in many places across the nation. Controlled fires benefit the environment by allowing for new growth, killing diseases affecting local wildlife, and clearing the forest floor, among many other positive outcomes. Wildfires, in contrast, are unpredictable and often detrimental. In addition to destroying homes and animal habitats, wildfires have been known to release black carbon and greenhouse gases that have an adverse effect on air quality.

​Across the state of California, the prevalence of wildfires has become rampant, especially in Shasta County. Although there are many local factors such the location of the fires, wind conditions, or form of ignition that can determine the effects of wildfires, there is a strong correlation between larger warming effects in the Western U.S. and acres burned with about 40% of the cause being attributed to warming among other factors, according to Carbon Brief. The same research also suggests a major connection between the increase in seasonal temperatures and the extent of fires since the 1980s. The increase in acreage burned by wildfires is consistent with global rising temperatures as a result of climate change.

​There are many effects that residents of Shasta County have experienced as a result of the increase in wildfires. As noted by the Shasta County Department of Resource Management, one of the more common results of wildfires is increased smoke exposure; this can be a major issue, especially for sensitive populations such as children, whose lungs are still in the process of development.
 
In addition, children can be even more at-risk for detrimental effects of wildfires due to the extreme trauma that occurs during evacuations and witnessing the fires. Being displaced from home, watching communities burn, and evacuation stress are all causes of extreme emotional trauma for wildfire victims. Although children are not the only at-risk population affected by these disasters, they do require more care and attention than the average adult during an emergency.
 
One area that especially affects older children is excessive exposure to media coverage. News coverage, while important for informing and educating people during emergencies, can cause anxiety, misunderstandings, and difficulties recovering emotionally for children with easy access to media sites. According to The National Child Traumatic Stress Network, exposure to both the natural disaster itself and the coverage post-incident can be detrimental to the wellbeing of children and families.
 
Wildfires also can have a dramatic impact on local economies. Shasta County relies on tourism-related businesses surrounding Shasta Lake, Shasta Caverns, and the Shasta-Trinity National Forest. According to an article from Scientific American, the constant wave of fires throughout the summer season caused a 50% decrease in local rentals as well as less foot traffic at local shops. When the physical environment is almost unbearable for local residents, there is bound to be less tourism throughout the usual seasons. While it may seem that wildfires only cause physical destruction, there are also many human consequences that arise after a traumatic disaster.

While salt marshes can be quite resilient to sea level rise, Jamaica Bay experiences a variety of other stressors that make it particularly vulnerable to this threat. Factors that exacerbate the already damaging effects of sea level rise include the general sediment deficit, a deepening of the Bay through dredging, waves generated by boat traffic, and excessive waterfowl grazing. While in less metropolitan areas, salt marsh loss can be compensated for by expanding the marsh onto adjacent upland or freshwater zones, Jamaica Bay shows the catastrophic repercussions of deteriorating salt marshes that have no hopes for expansion.

​Salt marshes in New York are one of the primary defenses against rising sea levels for coastal areas, but have been steadily deteriorating throughout the last several centuries. In New York State, salt marshes have reduced by 60% from 1780 to 1980. Field studies conducted in Jamaica Bay show that from 1989 to 2003, the Bay’s marshes were in rapid decline losing 13.4 ha/year. From 2003 to 2013, this has declined to 2.1 ha due to restoration efforts.

While the expected rising sea levels and future storms provide significant cause for concern, particularly in the Jamaica Bay region, this estuary is also a fascinating example of resilience in the face of climate change. In 2012, Hurricane Sandy tore through the northeast, causing significant flooding and massive devastation to infrastructure and coastal lagoons in the New York City area.

During Hurricane Sandy, Jamaica Bay experienced a storm surge of 8 to 10 feet during the worst of the storm. The damage felt after the storm was significant as well, with debris from destroyed homes and buildings coming from Queens and Brooklyn ultimately ending up in the Bay. Additionally, thousands of gallons of oil coming from home fuel tanks leaked into the area, creating yet another expense in the clean up after the storm.

The massive damages that Jamaica Bay, and the New York region as a whole, experienced from Hurricane Sandy displayed how instrumental proper governance and human action are in dealing with natural emergencies. Disaster relief funds provided swift critical aid to the region; however, many of these efforts were contained to the short-term and were more of a response tactic, rather than a preventative measure.

Despite the destruction New York City faced in 2012, human efforts have caused impressive improvement in the conditions of Jamaica Bay within the last two decades. Compared to 2003 when restorations first began, there has been a marked decrease in deterioration for the Bay. This ultimately was responsible for how swiftly the area recovered after Hurricane Sandy; however, constant monitoring is necessary, as even post-restoration, salt marsh loss continues to occur in the Bay. 

​Considering how important Jamaica Bay has historically been for the economic, social, and ecological health of New York, it is imperative that a concerted effort be made to help inoculate this area from the threats of future climate change, as rising sea levels and stronger storms will likely increase the risks facing the region.

Five Years After Hurricane Sandy, NYC’s Coastal Communities Remain Vulnerable. Curbed New York
Jamaica Bay Walloped by Hurricane Sandy. Queens Chronicle
New York Today: A ‘Maritime Forest’ Where Sandy’s Waters Rose. ​New York Times

As atmospheric temperatures around the world soar, oceanic water temperatures are increasing too, and glaciers and ice sheets are melting. Because water molecules in warmer water exhibit greater molecular movement, water expands in volume as it heats up. Furthermore, melting polar ice adds to the amount of water not in ice sheets, again causing a rise in sea levels globally.
​
Nonetheless, it is important to recognize that regional variations in atmospheric and oceanic circulation patterns, in addition to other factors, also influence the extent of sea level rise. As global sea levels continue to rise, exposed coastal communities must be prepared for an increased risk of flooding. Barnstable County, located on Cape Cod in Massachusetts, has already experienced a sea level increase of 11 inches since 1922, almost 2.85mm annually. Its vulnerable coastal position, located on 550 miles (890 km) of shoreline, contributes to the risk of flooding in the County in the face of sea level rise. ​

Barnstable County has also seen an upward trend in annual precipitation levels. As the atmosphere warms, the rate of evaporation increases. Quicker rates of evaporation pulls more water into the atmosphere which is then accessible for precipitation. Thus, the overall trend of atmospheric warming contributes to the rise in both frequency and intensity of precipitation events. Despite the annual variation in precipitation levels, the general progression seen over the past century in the graph above shows increasingly wetter conditions for Barnstable County.

Hurricanes are also becoming more powerful as a consequence of warming global temperatures. Because hurricanes form over warm ocean waters, the increase in oceanic temperatures fuel hurricanes with more energy to activate higher peak winds and greater rainfall. Sea level rise also worsens the damages of hurricanes, as higher coastal inundation levels can increase the risk of storm-surge flooding. Although climate change does not necessarily impact the frequencies of hurricanes, it increases the severity of storms that have the potential to reach the coast of Cape Cod and cause tremendous damage. ​

The increased levels of precipitation, rising sea levels, and more powerful hurricanes have elevated the number of coastal flooding days in Barnstable County. These factors have not only made floods become more frequent, but have also made them more severe. The graph above shows the growing number of coastal flood days that can be linked to climate-driven sea level rise. ​The County has already experienced severe coastal flooding, and likely will suffer in the future as temperatures and sea levels continue to rise.

This information relies on data from easily accessible online tools including the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Tides and Currents tool, the NOAA Climate at a Glance resource, and Climate Central’s Surging Seas: Risk Finder projections. It also draws on conclusions from a NOAA study connecting hurricane severity to global warming. 

The NOAA Tides and Currents resource collects data from over 100 water level stations in order to reconstruct sea level trends at the local level. The NOAA Climate at a Glance tool generates graphs using data gathered from weather stations to show trends in temperature, precipitation, and drought on global, regional, and local scales. Climate Central’s Surging Seas projections display sea level rise and flood risks for coastal locations.

Barnstable County Multi-Hazard Mitigation Plan. Cape Cod Commission
Massachusetts Hurricanes of the 20th Century. Massachusetts Office of Coastal Zone Management
Cape Cod Climate Change. The Boston Globe

Rising sea levels, an increase in overall precipitation, and more severe storms have greatly increased Fairfield County’s risk for floods. Over 130,000 people in the state are currently at risk of inland flooding, while heavy downpours and rising sea levels have strained the County’s sewer system. This stress on the County’s unprepared infrastructure has severely impacted both human and aquatic health. 

In particular, the rise in rain storms has increased levels of runoff. Within Fairfield County, the city of Bridgeport operates under a combined sewer system, meaning that rainwater runoff, domestic sewage, and industrial wastewater are all transported within the same pipe. During heavy storms where the rainfall exceeds the system’s capacity, the system is designed to overflow and release excess water into nearby bodies of water.

These overflows, called combined sewer overflows (CSOs), have considerable impacts on the local environment of Fairfield County. CSOs present an environmental and public health risk for the County, as the untreated wastewater that is discharged can contain bacteria, raw sewage, excess nutrients from fertilizers, and chemicals. This particularly impacted Bridgeport, as portions of the city’s sewer system were built over 100 years ago.

​The Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection found that a CSO occurs whenever there is 0.4 inches of precipitation or more. Overflows from the system occur on average every 10 days, releasing between 100,000 and 500,000 gallons of contaminated water into local rivers, streams, and harbors. With the increasing rate at which heavy downpours are taking place in Bridgeport, this leaves the public exposed to bacteria and raw sewage, creating a considerable health risk. 

The increasingly high levels of contamination have also undermined recreational activity, often leading to the closure of multiple beaches and parks. In Bridgeport the following parks, beaches, and harbors are constantly affected: Ash Creek, Bridgeport Harbor, Black Rock Harbor, Pequonnock Harbor, Johnson’s Creek, Yellow Mill Pond, Cedar Creek, Burr Creek, and Island Brook.  

Moreover, the loss of fishing grounds in Bridgeport has greatly disturbed the fishing industry. Leaked sewage has and will continue to kill tens of thousands of acres of shellfish beds. Additionally, hypoxia, or the overgrowth of algae that leads to dangerously low levels of oxygen for aquatic life, will continue to appear throughout the County as excess fertilizers enter these ecosystems. These “dead zones” are detrimental for aquatic species and will only further degrade the County’s water quality.

​Fairfield County, and specifically the Bridgeport Water Pollution Control Authority (WPCA), have already taken measures to combat the damages from CSOs. The WPCA has developed a plan to minimize the number of CSOs, and has implemented green infrastructure to prevent or delay stormwater from entering the sewer system. Although these efforts have helped reduce the number of overflows, Fairfield County nevertheless must invest in more infrastructure and a new system in order to mitigate the damages caused by stormwater runoff and severe floods.

Some CT beaches considered among the dirtiest. EyeWitness News
Water quality at Bridgeport, Fairfield beaches dropped in 2016. CT Post
Bridgeport plans massive sewer upgrades. CT Post
Combined Sewer Overflow Guide for City Employees. Bridgeport WPCA

King County includes over 200 miles along the water of Puget Sound and Lake Washington, making floods a continual threat. As flooding has become more common and more dangerous, the local government has already implemented methods to reduce the impacts of severe flooding. In the 1950’s and 1960’s, the County built flood mitigation structures, such as dams and levees. Yet, these measures failed to decrease the hazards of coastal and urban floods. The Seattle government then emphasized non-structural mitigation strategies, including but not limited to offering flood insurance and placing greater restrictions on land use planning. 

In the past several decades after these initiatives were implemented, the flood risk in King County has significantly increased and demanded different preventative measures and solutions. Seattle constructed diversions and detention basins to slow and store stormwater; however, these do not fully minimize the threats of landslides, repair the damages from erosion from coastal flooding, or adequately prevent urban flooding.

In January of 2009, King County experienced severe flooding after two days of heavy rain and warm temperatures that melted pre-existing snow. Rain total estimates from the Community Collaborative Rain, Hail, and Snow Network ranged from 1.5-2 inches in the western side of the county and 3-5 inches in the eastern section. This rainfall and snowmelt contributed to overflowing rivers in King County, even damaging the Howard Hanson Dam due to severe flooding of the Green River.

The local impacts of the 2009 flood were extensive, with King County declaring a state of emergency and ordering its citizens to evacuate. Major highways were shut down due to the threat of landslides, and the National Guard worked to remove snow from roofs to prevent them from collapsing during the most intense stages of rainfall. Additionally, an estimated 6,000 structures, 5,000 of which were  homes, were left isolated due to flood waters and landslides. These residents ultimately required emergency rescues in order to evacuate. Overall, this flood caused an estimated $96 million of damages in Washington state, with $28 million of damages in King County alone.

As severe flood events have become increasingly common in Washington, King County adopted a new flood hazard management plan in 2013. The four main goals of this plan include protecting public safety, preventing property damage, recovering the declining salmon populations, and supporting recreation. The County also implemented policies to repair levees and other structural preventative measures along the coast. Additionally, King County plans to fund projects to minimize damages from coastal erosion, to maintain flood management facilities, and to increase local flood-preparedness education.

The risk for severe flooding in the Seattle area has significantly increased in the past century, and major floods will only become more common and dangerous in the future. King County must decide how they will prepare for such events and how they will repair afterwards, as they have not yet discovered a sufficient method to respond to this environmental threat.   ​

Los Angeles County receives the majority of its annual rainfall during the late fall through early spring, then experiences a dry season during the summer months. The amount of winter season precipitation Los Angeles experiences has decreased over the past century, and this decline is predicted to continue. This reduction in rainfall means that there is less moisture in the soil at the beginning of the summer, which is the County’s dry season. The water evaporates from the soil and plants during the summer, and less winter precipitation ultimately leaves the vegetation drier earlier in the year. ​

In addition to lower levels of rainfall, rising temperatures are reinforcing dryer and hotter summers in Los Angeles County. Higher annual temperatures lead to earlier snowpack melting, meaning that the winter season is shorter, there is less moisture in the soil during the dry season, and that the dry season is even longer. Warming temperatures also speed up evaporation, thus drying out the soil and parching the trees and vegetation.

Drier and hotter summers have increased Los Angeles County’s drought risk, and by 2050 California’s risk of summertime drought is expected to almost triple. California’s dry and hot summers have always made the state more vulnerable to wildfires; however, rising temperatures and lower levels of precipitation have made the fire seasons longer and more severe. Los Angeles County’s fire season has already lengthened by approximately 75 days, and will likely increase in the future as well.

With a longer and wetter winter season, Los Angeles County’s vegetation would soak up moisture which could help prevent summertime wildfires. This moisture dried out slowly through the summer season until it could be replenished the following fall. However, because the summer season has grown longer and hotter, and fall and winter rainfalls have decreased, flammable tinder has accumulated to high levels. Moreover, fire suppression over the last several decades has only added to the dangerous levels of tinder that has been available, and will continue to be available, to burn. ​

These reconstructions are based on two easy to use tools that are freely accessible online: the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Climate at a Glance tool and National Drought Mitigation Center's United States Drought Monitor. 
​
NOAA's Climate at a Glance tool uses data collected at weather stations and stored in NOAA's U.S. Climate Divisions database. This data is used to generate graphs about temperature, precipitation, and droughts, with the ability to look at global, national, and local averages.

The Drought Monitor produces maps of drought conditions across the United States and publishes them weekly. The tool combines climate, soil, and water data with reports from 350 experts across the country. This generates an assessment of current drought conditions nationally, with the ability to look at data for individual states or counties.

Nantucket Island will continue to face extreme regional impacts as sea levels continue to rise. Given its location as an island off the coast of Massachusetts, Nantucket is especially susceptible to the effects of rising sea levels. If global temperatures increase by 2°C, Nantucket could see up to 10 feet of sea level rise. If temperatures increase by 4°C, oceans surrounding the County could rise by as much as 19 feet. In both emissions scenarios, all of historic Nantucket - a community hundreds of years old - would be underwater; however, with a rise in sea levels of 19 feet, a significant portion of the island could become submerged. ​

Nantucket's Bluffs and Beaches are Crumbling in the Face of Storms and Rising Seas. PRI
​Chronicle: Fighting Erosion on Nantucket. WCVB
More Details on Geotubes. Siasconset Beach Preservation Fund